Conjunctions/Complex Sentences/Sub-ordinating Conjunctions

Conjunctions:

Subordinating Conjunctions- 

A sub-ordinate Conjunction joins a sub-ordinate clause (dependent clause) to the principal clause (main clause/independent clause). 

• Sub-ordinating conjunctions are used to form Complex sentences.
• In a complex sentence there are at least two clauses known as Principal clause and Sub-ordinating clause.
• There are three types of sub-ordinating clauses:

1. Noun clause
2. Adjective clause
3. Adverb clause

The most common subordinating conjunctions are:

after, although, as, because, before, if, since, that, though (though..... ,  yet), till, until, unless, so that, lest, as soon as, when, whenever, where, why, how, than, whether, while etc.

(some phrases also function as subordinating conjunctions . some of the most common ones are: as if, as far as, as long as, as well as, even if, even though, so that, in order to, in order that etc. )

Sub-ordinating Clauses :

1) Noun clause :

A Noun clause functions as a noun in a sentence. We use who, which, where, why, what, when, that, etc to make a noun clause. Noun clause can be used as five types:

A) Subject to a verb

B) Object to a verb

C) Object to a preposition

D) Complement to a verb

E) Case in apposition to a Noun

A) Subject to a verb:

•   That he is a thief, is known to all.

B) Object to a verb:

• Every teacher knows that he is an intelligent boy.

• Tell me where he is.

C) Object to a preposition:

• You must rely on what I told you yesterday.

• I did not agree to what you said.

• Pay attention to what they are saying.

D) Complement to a verb:

• The reason of his failure in the  examination is that he is careless.  

• My opinion is that you will get good marks.

E) Case in apposition to a Noun:

• The news,  that Gandhiji was shot dead, spread  all over the country like a fire.

2) Adjective Clause :

An adjective clause functions as an adjective in a sentence. To make an adjective clause, we use Relative Pronoun (who, whose, whom, which, that) or Relative adverb ( how, why, when, where).

• I know the boy who came here.

• I have lost the watch that you gave me.

• The time which is lost, is lost for ever.

•  This is the school where I was taught in my childhood.

• Nobody knew the reason why he was weeping. 

• I do not know the time when he will come from Delhi. 

Subordinating Conjunctions are classified according to their meaning :

The most common categories of Subordinating conjunctions (as an adverb clause) are:

1) Time (Adverb clause of Time)

    (when, whenever, while, after, before, as soon as, since, as, till, until, no sooner....than etc.)

• When you come, I shall go there.  (showing time)
          (will/shall will be used only in principal clause)   
Many things have happened since I saw you.    (showing time)
As soon as he heard the news of my success, he informed me.  (showing time)

2) Place  (Adverb clause of Place)

(where, wherever)

• Nehru was welcomed wherever he went.

3) Condition  (Adverb clause of Condition)

    (if, whether, unless)

• If you work too much, You will lose your health. 

• If you help me, I shall help you.

4) Manner  (Adverb clause of Manner)

(as, as if, so far as, as far as)

• He talks as if (or as though) he were mad.   (Showing manner)

I will treat you as you have treated me.    (Showing manner)

5) Cause  (Adverb clause of Cause)

(because, as, since)

• I shall teach him because he is weak.     (showing reason) 

• As he was not there, I spoke to his father.    (showing reason) 

• He cannot walk because he is weak.     (showing reason) 

• I am glad that you like it.    (showing reason) 

 6) Purpose  (Adverb clause of Purpose)

(that, so that, lest, in order that)

• Walk slowly lest you should fall.

• Passengers pushed one another so that they might enter the compartment.

7) Comparison  (Adverb clause of Comparison)

(as....as, so....as, than)

• Mohan is as intelligent as Rohan (is).        
•  You are not so strong as I (am).         
• Mohan is wiser than he (is).              

8) Contrast  (Adverb clause of Contrast)

(although, though, even if, however)

• Although he is poor, he is honest.

9)Effect or Result  (Adverb clause of Effect)

(that) use the adverb 'so' in first clause & start second clause using conjunction 'that'.

• He is so poor that he can not buy this book.

• He was so weak that he could not speak.

Some important point you need to know:

A Clause is a group of words that has a subject and a verb. Some clauses are independent and some clauses are dependent. Independent clauses express a complete thought while dependent clauses can't stand alone. There are some important points given that we need to know: 

• An independent clause is a clause that could stand as a complete sentence on its own.
• Independent clauses are often joined via conjunctions, commas or semicolons to form compound sentences.
• Dependent clause (also known as subordinate clause) could not stand alone in a sentence.
• Dependent clauses may function as nouns (noun clauses, adjectives (relative clauses), or adverbs (adverbial clauses)

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Conjunction/Compound Sentences/Co-ordinating Clauses

 Conjunction- 

A Conjunction is a word or set of words that joins two or more  words, phrases, & clauses in a sentence.

The most common conjunctions in English are and, but, yet, because, so, or, otherwise etc.

Examples :

• Give me a pen and a paper.   (connecting words)

• He worked in a village or in a town.   (connecting phrases)

• You are tired so you should take rest.     (connecting clauses)

• I called him but he didn't answer.     (connecting clauses)

There are so many words in English which can function as many parts of speech as 'before'.

Now let's form some sentences using this word:

I have seen this man before.         (Adverb) 

He lived here before the war.      (Preposition) 

The rain fell before we reached home. (Conjunction) 

In these sentence the word 'BEFORE' is used as an adverb, preposition, & conjunction. In first sentence it is used to describe a verb so it is an adverb, in second sentence the word 'before' is used before a noun to connect that particular noun with the rest part of the sentence so it is used as a preposition & in third sentence the word 'before' is used to connect two clauses so it is used as a conjunction.

Kinds of Conjunction :

The two main types of Conjunction are :

1) Coordinating Conjunctions 

2) Subordinating Conjunctions                            

There is one more type of conjunction that is known as Correlative Conjunction. This type of conjunctions are always used in pairs that works together. They are actually adverbs that are used as conjunctions. But today, we are going to define all the conjunctions in two categories. We will put correlative conjunctions in the category of coordinating conjunctions. By using these conjunctions we will form two types of clauses : Co-ordinating conjunctions & Sub-ordinating conjunctions.

Now let's focus on Co-ordinating Conjunctions:

1) Co-ordinating Conjunctions - 

 Coordinating Conjunctions join similar words, phrases or clauses.

The conjunction that connects two words, two independent phrases or clauses is known as a Coordinating Conjunction. Coordinating Conjunctions join words, phrases or clauses of equal rank.

• Co-ordinating Conjunctions are used to form Compound sentences.
• In compound sentences there are at least two independent clauses, the first clause is known as Principal clause and second one is Co-ordinate clause.

Co-ordinating conjunctions are:

For, and, nor, but, or, yet, so, otherwise, else, still, as well as, not only....but also, either....or, neither.....nor, Both....and etc.

 Co-ordinating Conjunctions:

1)Cumulative/Copulative Conjunctions (जोड़ बताने वाले संयोजक)

These conjunctions connects one statement to another; as

And, as well as, both.... and, not only.... but also.

• He came here and read a book. 
• He as well as his sister is intelligent.
• Both he and his friend went there.  (used only in positive sense, to show negative sense use neither...nor)

           neither he nor his friend went there.

• His brother is not only punished but also fined. 
• Nehru was not only a politician, but also a writer.

2) Alternative / Disjunctive Conjunctions (वैकल्पिक संयोजक)

These conjunctions express a choice between two alternatives.

Either.... or, neither.... nor,  otherwise etc.

• Come in or go out. (OR) Either come in or go out. 
• Either Mohan or his brother has taken your book.
• Neither the teacher nor the students were present.
• Go quickly otherwise you will be late. 

3) Adversative Conjunctions (विरोध बताने वाले संयोजक)

These conjunctions express opposition or contrast between two statements; as 

(we use comma before these conjunctions)

But, yet, still, however etc.

• We invited him to the party, but he did not come. 
• He is poor, yet he is honest.
• He is rich,  yet (still) he is not satisfied. 

4) Illative Conjunctions (परिणाम बताने वाले संयोजक)

These conjunctions express an inference.

So, therefore, for etc.

He is poor, so (therefore)  he cannot pay the fee.

I cannot see for it is very dark. 

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Preposition of Time

Preposition of Time

Today, we are going to focus on all the prepositions`that are used to tell about time. We use the prepositions 'In', 'At', 'On', 'During', 'For', 'Since', 'Till'/'Until', 'Ago', 'Before', 'After', 'By', 'To', 'Within' etc before time.

'IN'

We use the preposition 'IN' when we talk about 

Months  -   

in January, in February, in August. 

Example - My friend will come back in October.

Years       -  

in 1995, in 2008, in 2019, in 2020. 

Example -  He was born in 1998.

Decades  -  

in the 60’s, (in the sixties), the 1990’s. 

Example - He was famous in the 90’s.

Centuries-  

in 1700’s, in 1800’s, in the 21st century. 

Example -We are living in the 21st century. 

Seasons-     

in  Winter, in Summer, in Spring, in Rainy

Example - We are going to visit there in winter.

Parts/period of the day - 

in the morning /evening / afternoon 

(but at noon/midday/night/midnight)

Examples - 

He is leaving in the morning. 

He is leaving at noon. 

 We try to work in the evening.

Period of time - 

in three hours, in one week, two weeks, in a few minutes, in a few days/Weeks, in a couple of days, in the present, in the past, in the future, in the next century, in the 5 years time.

Examples - 

He will go to Mumbai in a week.

 He will leave in a few minutes/in two hours.    

 

'ON'

We Use the preposition ‘ON’ when we talk about days & dates. 

Days of the week – on Sunday, on Monday

              The game will be played on Monday.

              He doesn’t work on Sundays.

Day + Part of day – Sunday Morning, on summer evening

                We are going to the theatre on Friday evening.

Days of the month - on the 15th, on the 31st

Dates with month - on 15th August, on 

26th of January, on 14th of November

                 The children’s Day is celebrated on 14th of November.

Special Days - My birthday, His anniversary, on my wedding day, on the following day

                  I have an exam on my birthday/on the following day.

Special part of a day - on the morning of October the 11th

                  Last time, I met my friend on the evening of August the 14th.

Holidays with day-    on Easter day, on Christmas Day, on Women’s Day. 

                                            

'AT' 

   we use the preposition ‘AT’ when we talk about 

A specific time - at 6 a.m./p.m., at 6:30, at 9 o’clock, at 12 o’ clock, at  noon, at night, at midday, at midnight, at sunrise, at sunset, at dawn, at dusk.

         The meeting starts at eleven thirty.

         I don’t like to go out at night.

         He arrived at 2:30.

         He left at midnight.

         He left the place at 9 o’clock.

Fixed phrases (expressions) - at the moment, at the present, at the same time, at the end of the month/day, at the beginning, at the end, at the weekend etc. 

    He is doing his work at the moment.

    They arrived at the same time.

    I finished the course at the end of October.

    He’s unavailable at present.

    He is leaving at the weekend.

   (in American English, on the weekend is the correct form.)

Holidays without day – at Easter, at New Year, at Christmas (on Christmas day, on Easter Day, on new year day)

Meal times- at lunch time, at dinner time, at breakfast etc. 

We will go shopping at lunch time.

'During'-

Used when something happens within the time something else is happening.

During office hours, during the summer, during that time, during 1984 etc.  

     We stayed at the student hostel during the conference. 

     He fell asleep during the movie. 

'For' – 

Used to show a period of time/an amount of time. It indicates that the action continues for the whole period.

E. g.  -  For three weeks, for five hours etc. 

I have been teaching in this school for five years.

I sleep for six hours.

This labourer works for eight hours daily.

He has been doing his work  for two hours.

'Since' – 

since expresses point of time (Refers back to a point in time when something began). 

I have been teaching in this school  since 2015.

He has been doing his work since two o’clock.

'Until'/'Till'-

To describe a continuous action that stops at a specific time.

They lived in Delhi until 2008.

We will wait till half past six.

'From'… 'to' / 'till'/ 'until' -

To show when something begins & ends.

The principal remains in his office from 10 to 4.

We work from 8 a.m. to/till 4 p.m.

Her visit will extend from Monday to Thursday

'Ago' - 

 Refers to how far back in time something happened or to talk about a past event in reference to the present time. 

He left the house an hour ago.

He completed his course five months ago.

'Before'/'After'-

 use the preposition before & after refers that something happens either previous or later a specific time. Before is also used to talk about a past event in reference to another past event.

He will come here before Sunday.

I’ll see you after Monday.

He cleared the test a month before he completed the course.

'By' -

 Not later than

He had promised to be back by five o’clock. ( Before 5 o’clock or at 5 o’ clock)

He will finish this work by Friday.

Submit the project report by Friday.  

 

'Between'… 'and' – 

to talk about time that separates to points.

They lived in New York between 1998 & 2004.

'In'/'Within' –

'In' indicates that the action will perform at the end of time while 'within' indicates that the action will perform before the end of time. 

He will return in a week. (at the close of the week)

 He will return within a week.  (in less than a week)

 You should receive a reply within seven days. (in less than seven days)

'IN'/ 'ON'/ 'BY'

In time  – before time

On time – at the appointed time

By time -   before that time or at that time( to indicate a deadline)

Submit the project report in Friday.

Submit the project report on Friday.

Submit the project report by Friday.

(IN indicates you have to submit the project report before Friday, 'ON'  indicates you have to submit the project report on Friday 'AT' indicates you have to submit the project report till friday) 

I should reach the school by 7 a.m.

You have to finish the work by five o’clock.

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Infinitive (Non-finite verb)

Infinitive - 

 To + base form of the verb. 

An infinitive is a non-finite verb. It is form with to + base form of the verb & acts as a noun, adjective, or adverb. 

E.g. -  To play, to eat, to write, to give, to take, to jump, to laugh, to go, etc. 

The present infinitive has two forms :

To infinitive  -  to + base form 

Zero infinitive  -  base form

Although infinitives are verbs they do not function as verbs instead they are used as nouns, adjectives or adverbs.

 

 Infinitives as Nouns - 

As we all know noun is a naming word. When an infinitive is used as the subject or direct object in a sentence, it functions as a noun. 

Example - 

• To advise others is easy. 

If we ask the question who or what is so easy? 

We find the answer to advise. 

To advise is an infinitive form of the verb 

(In this example the infinitive to advise is the subject of the sentence and it functions as a noun.) 

 We can also write this sentence in this way. 

It is easy to advise others. 

• He likes to do it. 

( In this sentence the verb is 'like' 

Who or what receives the action of being likes? 

To do

It means to do which is the infinitive form of the verb, is the direct object of the sentence & functions as a noun that expresses an opinion. 

It could be replaced with a person, place, or thing. 

He likes.............. 

• I really need to eat something.  ( Noun) 

Infinitives as adjective - 

As we know an adjective is a word that describes or modifies a noun or a pronoun. It means infinitives function as adjectives when they modify or describe nouns in a sentence. 

Examples -

• He wants a book to read.   (adjective) 

In this example the verb is 'want'. Book is a noun &  to read is an infinitive form which is describing the noun 'book'. 

It means the infinitive 'to read' is used as an adjective. (he don't want only a book, he wants the book to read) 

• He has some letters to write. 

In this example the word 'letters'  is a noun, &  'to write' which is an infinitive form of the verb, is used to describe letters. It means this infinitive is used here as an adjective. 

Infinitives as adverbs - 

 As we have already learnt that adverbs describe or modify adjectives,  verbs or other adverbs. 

It means infinitives function as adverbs when they are used to give more information about adjective, verb or other adverbs in a sentence. 

Usages of Infinitives - 

1) To define the purpose of an action,

2) As the subject of the sentence, 

3) As direct object of the sentence, 

4) As subjective complement, 

5) As an adjective, 

6) As an adverb, 

7) After an adjective, 

8) Used with question word.

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Degrees of Comparison of Adjective

Adjective:

An adjective is a word used to describe or qualify a noun or a pronoun.

E.g. - Riya is a beautiful girl.

In this sentence, the word 'beautiful' is an adjective (adjective of quality) which is used to qualify a noun (Riya).

He is a naughty boy.

In this sentence, the word 'naughty' is an adjective (adjective of quality) which is used to qualify a pronoun (He).  

Degrees of Comparison:

An adjective of quality changes its form when one person, place or object is compared with another or others. It is called the degrees of comparison of adjective.

A degree of comparison is used to express equality, superiority / inferiority or supremacy of one person, place or object.

There are three degrees of comparison:

        1)   Positive degree

       2)   Comparative degree

       3)   Superlative degree

                     

                                    

        1) Positive degree:

The basic form of an adjective is known as positive degree. It is used to describe or qualify a noun.

e.g.-

1) Rekha is beautiful.

2) Mohan is strong.

This degree of comparison is used to compare two nouns but to show equality.

e.g.-

1) Rekha is as beautiful as Riya.              (Affirmative)

2) Mohan is not as so strong as Sohan. (Negative)

 (we put positive degree between as......as or so.......as. If the sentence is affirmative positive degree is used between as....as & if  the sentence is negative used it between so..... as.) 

2) Comparative degree:

This degree is used to compare two people, places, or objects. This degree of comparison expresses superiority or inferiority.

 Riya is not more beautiful than Rekha.

 Sohan is stronger than mohan.

3) Superlative degree:

 It is used to compare a person, place, or thing with two or more than two people, places, or things. This degree of adjective expresses supremacy.

Priya is the most beautiful girl in the class.

Sohan is the strongest boy in the class.

 There are some basic rules to form the degrees of comparison:

1)      We generally add the suffix –‘er’ or –‘est’ to the end of the adjective to form comparative & superlative.

          Dark             Darker           Darkest

          Clever          Cleverer         Cleverest

          Black            Blacker          Blackest

          Bold              Bolder           Boldest 

          Brave           Braver            Bravest

          Bright          Brighter         Brightest 

         Clean            Cleaner          Cleanest

         Cold              Colder            Coldest

         Cool              Cooler            Coolest 

          Deep            Deeper           Deepest

          Fair             Fairer              Fairest

          Fast             Faster             Fastest

         Great           Greater           Greatest

         Hard            Harder            Hardest

         High             Higher            Highest

         Light            Lighter            Lightest

         Long           Longer             Longest

         Low             Lower              Lowest 

         Old               Older               Oldest

         Cheap          Cheaper          Cheapest

         Short           Shorter           Shortest 

         Rich            Richer             Richest

         Tall             Taller              Tallest 

2)    When an adjective ends in –e, add –r to the end of the adjective to form comparative & -st for superlative.  

Large             Larger            Largest

White            Whiter            Whitest

Brave            Braver             Bravest

Large            Larger             Largest 

Late              Later                Latest

Strange       Stranger          Strangest

Simple        Simpler           Simplest

Able            Abler               Ablest

3)    When an adjective ends with a vowel +a consonant, double the final consonant & add –er or –est to the end to form comparative & superlative.

 Hot            Hotter         Hottest

 Sad            Sadder         Saddest

 Big             Bigger          Biggest

 Fat             Fatter           Fattest

 Flat           Flatter          Flattest

 Thin          Thinner       Thinnest

 Glad         Gladder        Gladdest

4)     When an adjective ends with -y, & there is a consonant before –y, change –y to –i & add –er or –est to the end to form comparative & superlative.

 Early           Earlier           Earliest

      Happy        Happier        Happiest

      Busy            Busier           Busiest

      Dirty           Dirtier           Dirtiest

      Dry             Drier               Driest

      Easy           Easier              Easiest

      Funny       Funnier           Funniest

      Heavy       Heavier           Heaviest

      Healthy    Healthier        Healthiest

      Lazy          Lazier              Laziest

      Naughty   Naughtier      Naughtiest

      Noisy         Noisier           Noisiest

      Pretty        Prettiest         Prettiest

      Holy          Holier             Holiest

      Lovely      Lovelier          Loveliest

      Tidy          Tidier              Tidiest

5)    When an adjective is long (an adjective of two or more syllables), not ended in –y, add, more to form comparative & most for superlative.

Beautiful    more beautiful  most beautiful

Creative      more creative     most creative

Dangerous  more dangerous  most dangerous

Difficult     more difficult     most difficult

Confused     more confused   most confused 

Fascinating    more fascinating     most fascinating 

Famous      more famous     most famous 

Generous   more generous   most generous 

Graceful     more graceful     most graceful

Handsome  more handsome  most handsome

Hardworking  more hardworking   most hardworking

Important    more important    most important 

Creative    more creative    most creative 

Popular    more popular     most popular 

Gentle       more gentle        most gentle 

6)     There are some adjectives that do not form the comparative & superlative from their positives. They are called irregular adjectives. Their forms are quite different from one another.

Good          better             best

Bad            worse             worst

Little          less                 least

Much/Many   more       most

Fore           Former          Foremost/First

Hind          Hinder           Hindmost

Late        Later/Letter     Last/Latest

Old          Older/Elder    Oldest/Eldest

Near        Nearer              Nearest/Next

Far     Farther/Further  Farthest/Furthest

 

 

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Order of Adjective

Order of Adjectives

An adjective is a word used to describe or qualify a noun or a pronoun.

It is a sweet mango.

When more than one adjective comes before a noun, modifying the same noun, they are usually placed in certain order.

Determiner  ⟶     Opinion   ⟶    Size   ⟶     Age   ⟶     Shape   ⟶   

 colour   ⟶     Origin   ⟶    Material    ⟶     Purpose   ⟶     Noun.

                       

1)  Determiner –    

       A determiner is a word used before a noun to give additional information about that noun.

 E.g. -

Articles – a, an, the, etc.

Demonstrative – this, that, these, those, etc.

Possessive adjective – my, our, your, his, her, their, etc.

Quantitative adjective – some, few, little etc.

Numeral adjective – first, second, one, two etc.

                                        

 2)  Opinion –

        What we think about something or someone.

 E.g. - Beautiful, lovely, good, bad, delicious, expensive, etc.

 

    3)   Size – 

       This adjective tells us about the size how big or small something or someone is.

 E.g. - Big, large, huge, long, small, little, short, etc.

 

    4)   Age –

       This adjective tells us how young or old something or someone is.

 E.g. - Young, old, new, ancient, modern, etc.    

   

5)   Shape – 

       This adjective tells us about the shape of something.

  E.g. -Round, square, triangular, rectangular, wavy, zigzag etc.

    6)   Colour –

      This adjective describes the colour of something.

 E.g. -Red, black, bright, pale, faded, etc.

    
7)   Origin –

        It describes where something comes from.

  E.g. -Indian, American, French, Japanese, etc.

 

      8)      Material –

        It describes what something is made of.

  E.g. -Gold, copper, wooden, metal, cotton, paper, plastic, etc.

 

     9)   Purpose – 

        It describes what something is used for. It often ends with ing.

  E.g. -Rolling (pin), writing (pad), racing (car) etc.

 

Now let's form some sentences using proper order of adjective:

1)      I saw two beautiful, tall, young, black-haired Indian girls.

(black-haired/ two/ young/ Indian/ tall/ beautiful)

2)      I want to buy this small, square, black leather hand bag.

(black/this/square/leather/small)

3)      My friend gifted me an expensive, long, multicolored woolen sweater.

(woolen/ multicolored/ expensive/an/long)

4)      I want to buy that big, round, wooden dining table.

(dining/ round/ wooden/big/that).

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